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America will never be destroyed from the
outside. If we falter, and lose our freedoms, it will be because we
destroyed ourselves. Abraham Lincoln There are those who still think that they are holding the pass against a revolution that may be coming up the road. But they are gazing in the wrong direction. The revolution is behind them. It went by in the Night of Depression singing songs to freedom. Garet Garret A really efficient totalitarian state would be one in which the all-powerful executive of political bosses and their army of managers control a population of slaves who do not have to be coerced, because they love their servitude. To make them love it is the task assigned, in present-day totalitarian states, to ministries of propaganda, newspaper editors and schoolteachers .... The greatest triumphs of propaganda have been accomplished, not by doing something, but by refraining from doing. Great is truth, but still greater, from a practical point of view, is silence about truth." Aldous Huxley Brave New World foreword to 1946 edition |
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Scientific Abstracts on Peak Oil IssuesHenry P. Scott * *Department of Physics and Astronomy, Indiana
University, South Bend, IN 46634;
Contributed by Russell J. Hemley, August 12, 2004 We present in situ observations of hydrocarbon formation via carbonate reduction at upper mantle pressures and temperatures. Methane was formed from FeO, CaCO3-calcite, and water at pressures between 5 and 11 GPa and temperatures ranging from 500°C to 1,500°C. The results are shown to be consistent with multiphase thermodynamic calculations based on the statistical mechanics of soft particle mixtures. The study demonstrates the existence of abiogenic pathways for the formation of hydrocarbons in the Earth's interior and suggests that the hydrocarbon budget of the bulk Earth may be larger than conventionally assumed.
The Constraints of the Laws of Thermodynamics
upon the Evolution of Hydrocarbons: The Prohibition of Hydrocarbon Genesis
at Low Pressures. This first article dealing with the general subject of the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of abyssal, abiotic petroleum origins does not itself involve specifically that body of knowledge. This article discusses the reasons which led physicists, chemists, thermodynamicists, and chemical, mechanical, and petroleum engineers to reject, already by the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the hypothesis that highly-reduced hydrocarbon molecules of high chemical potentials might somehow evolve spontaneously from highly-oxidized biological molecules of low chemical potentials, and reviews briefly the fundamental scientific reasons for the failure of the 18th-century hypothesis1 of a biological origin of petroleum. A fundamental attribute of modern Russian petroleum science is that it conforms to the general, fundamental laws of physics and chemistry. Although such constraint may seem an obvious requisite for any scientific assertion, the 18th-century hypothesis that petroleum might somehow evolve spontaneously from biological detritus in the near-surface depths of the Earth stands, contrarily, in glaring violation of the most fundamental, and irrevocable, laws of nature: the second law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics is a statement of irreversibility, and is an acknowledgement that spontaneous physical processes "go only one way." Such property of the natural world is commonly and inevitably experienced in day-to-day life. Such common, irreversible phenomena as heat flow, diffusion, and chemical reactions are constantly observed. When any two bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact, and no other action is taken upon them, heat flows from the hotter body to the colder, until such time as their respective temperatures become equal throughout their volumes; at which time the flow of heat ceases; and the process never reverses, so as to return the initially hotter body to any temperature higher (and the initially colder body, lower) than the final equilibrium temperature. Similarly, when two miscible fluids are placed in the same volume (such as a drop of cream in a coffee cup), and no other action is taken upon them, each fluid diffuses throughout the other, until such time as their respective densities become equally uniform throughout the volume; at which time the diffusive flow ceases; and the process never reverses, so as to return either fluid to any local density higher than the final equilibrium one. Likewise for chemical processes, when any two chemical species capable of reacting (reagents) are placed in contact, and no other action is taken upon them, chemical reaction proceeds, until such time as the reagents have reached their equilibrium chemical state; at which time the reaction ceases; and the process never reverses, so as to return the chemical products to the state of the initial reagents. The scientific principle which subsumes all of these intuitively obvious processes is the second law of thermodynamics. When the second law of thermodynamics is expressed in its mathematical (and general) form, it may be used directly to predict whether any hypothesized chemical reaction will proceed, at any temperature or pressure.
Dismissal of Claims of a Biological
Connection for Natural Petroleum. Introduction. With recognition that the laws of thermodynamics prohibit spontaneous evolution of liquid hydrocarbons in the regime of temperature and pressure characteristic of the crust of the Earth, one should not expect there to exist legitimate scientific evidence that might suggest that such could occur. Indeed, and correctly, there exists no such evidence. Nonetheless, and surprisingly, there continue to be often promulgated diverse claims purporting to constitute "evidence" that natural petroleum somehow evolves (miraculously) from biological matter. In this short article, such claims are briefly subjected to scientific scrutiny, demonstrated to be without merit, and dismissed. The claims which purport to argue for some connection between natural petroleum and biological matter fall into roughly two classes: the "look-like/come-from" claims; and the "similar(recondite)-properties/come-from" claims. The "look-like/come-from" claims apply a line of unreason exactly as designated: Such argue that, because certain molecules found in natural petroleum "look like" certain other molecules found in biological systems, then the former must "come-from" the latter. Such notion is, of course, equivalent to asserting that elephant tusks evolve because those animals must eat piano keys. In some instances, the "look-like/come-from" claims assert that certain molecules found in natural petroleum actually are biological molecules, and evolve only in biological systems. These molecules have often been given the spurious name "biomarkers." The scientific correction must be stated unequivocally: There have never been observed any specifically biological molecules in natural petroleum, except as contaminants. Petroleum is an excellent solvent for carbon compounds; and, in the sedimentary strata from which petroleum is often produced, natural petroleum takes into solution much carbon material, including biological detritus. However, such contaminants are unrelated to the petroleum solvent. The claims about "biomarkers" have been thoroughly discredited by observations of those molecules in the interiors of ancient, abiotic meteorites, and also in many cases by laboratory synthesis under imposed conditions mimicking the natural environment. In the discussion below, the claims put forth about porphyrin and isoprenoid molecules are addressed particularly, because many "look-like/come-from" claims have been put forth for those compounds. The "similar (recondite)-properties/come-from" claims involve diverse, odd phenomena with which persons not working directly in a scientific profession would be unfamiliar. These include the "odd-even abundance imbalance" claims, the "carbon isotope" claims, and the "optical-activity" claims. The first, the "odd-even abundance imbalance" claims, are demonstrated to be utterly unrelated to any biological property. The second, "carbon isotope" claims, are shown to depend upon measurement of an obscure property of carbon fluids which cannot reliably be considered a measure of origin. The third, the "optical-activity" claims, deserve particular note; for the observations of optical activity in natural petroleum have been trumpeted loudly for years as a "proof" of some "biological origin" of petroleum. Those claims have been thoroughly discredited decades ago by observation of optical activity in the petroleum material extracted from the interiors of carbonaceous meteorites. More significantly, recent analysis, which has resolved the previously-outstanding problem of the genesis of optical activity in abiotic fluids, has established that the phenomenon of optical activity is an inevitable thermodynamic consequence of the phase stability of multi-component fluids at high pressures. Thereby, the observation of optical activity in natural petroleum is entirely consistent with the results of the thermodynamic analysis of the stability of the hydrogen-carbon [H-C] system, which establish that hydrocarbon molecules heavier than methane, and particularly liquid hydrocarbons, evolve spontaneously only at high pressures, comparable to those necessary for diamond formation. There are two subjects which are particularly relevant for destroying the diverse, spurious claims concerning a putative connection of petroleum and biological matter: the investigations of the carbon material from carbonaceous meteorites; and the reaction products of the Fischer-Tropsch process. Because of their importance, a brief discussion of both is in order.
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