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Henry P. Scott *  ,
Russell J. Hemley
,
Ho-kwang Mao
,
Dudley R. Herschbach  ,
Laurence E. Fried ¶, W. Michael Howard ¶, and Sorin Bastea ||
*Department of Physics and Astronomy, Indiana
University, South Bend, IN 46634;
Geophysical
Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 5251 Broad Branch Road NW,
Washington, DC 20015; Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138;
and ¶Chemistry and Materials Science Directorate and ||Physics
and Advanced Technologies Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, Livermore, CA 94550
Contributed by Russell J. Hemley, August 12,
2004
We present in situ
observations of hydrocarbon formation via carbonate reduction at
upper mantle pressures and temperatures. Methane was formed from
FeO, CaCO3-calcite, and water at pressures between 5
and 11 GPa and temperatures ranging from 500°C to 1,500°C. The
results are shown to be consistent with multiphase thermodynamic
calculations based on the statistical mechanics of soft particle
mixtures. The study demonstrates the existence of abiogenic
pathways for the formation of hydrocarbons in the Earth's interior
and suggests that the hydrocarbon budget of the bulk Earth may
be larger than conventionally assumed.
The Constraints of the Laws of Thermodynamics
upon the Evolution of Hydrocarbons: The Prohibition of Hydrocarbon Genesis
at Low Pressures.
J. F. Kenney, I. K. Karpov, Ac. Ye. F. Shnyukov, V. A. Krayushkin, I. I.
Chebanenko, V. P. Klochko, (2001), Energia, 22/3, 18-23.
PDF
version.
This first article dealing with the general
subject of the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of abyssal, abiotic petroleum
origins does not itself involve specifically that body of knowledge. This
article discusses the reasons which led physicists, chemists,
thermodynamicists, and chemical, mechanical, and petroleum engineers to
reject, already by the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the
hypothesis that highly-reduced hydrocarbon molecules of high chemical
potentials might somehow evolve spontaneously from highly-oxidized
biological molecules of low chemical potentials, and reviews briefly the
fundamental scientific reasons for the failure of the 18th-century
hypothesis1 of a biological origin of petroleum.
A fundamental attribute of modern Russian
petroleum science is that it conforms to the general, fundamental laws of
physics and chemistry. Although such constraint may seem an obvious
requisite for any scientific assertion, the 18th-century
hypothesis that petroleum might somehow evolve spontaneously from biological
detritus in the near-surface depths of the Earth stands, contrarily, in
glaring violation of the most fundamental, and irrevocable, laws of nature:
the second law of thermodynamics.
The second law of thermodynamics is a
statement of irreversibility, and is an acknowledgement that spontaneous
physical processes "go only one way." Such property of the natural world is
commonly and inevitably experienced in day-to-day life. Such common,
irreversible phenomena as heat flow, diffusion, and chemical reactions are
constantly observed.
When any two bodies at different temperatures
are placed in contact, and no other action is taken upon them, heat flows
from the hotter body to the colder, until such time as their respective
temperatures become equal throughout their volumes; at which time the flow
of heat ceases; and the process never reverses, so as to return the
initially hotter body to any temperature higher (and the initially colder
body, lower) than the final equilibrium temperature.
Similarly, when two miscible fluids are
placed in the same volume (such as a drop of cream in a coffee cup), and no
other action is taken upon them, each fluid diffuses throughout the other,
until such time as their respective densities become equally uniform
throughout the volume; at which time the diffusive flow ceases; and the
process never reverses, so as to return either fluid to any local
density higher than the final equilibrium one.
Likewise for chemical processes, when any two
chemical species capable of reacting (reagents) are placed in contact, and
no other action is taken upon them, chemical reaction proceeds, until such
time as the reagents have reached their equilibrium chemical state; at which
time the reaction ceases; and the process never reverses, so as to
return the chemical products to the state of the initial reagents.
The scientific principle which subsumes all
of these intuitively obvious processes is the second law of thermodynamics.
When the second law of thermodynamics is expressed in its mathematical (and
general) form, it may be used directly to predict whether any hypothesized
chemical reaction will proceed, at any temperature or pressure.
Dismissal of Claims of a Biological
Connection for Natural Petroleum.
J. F. Kenney, Ac. Ye. F. Shnyukov, V. A. Krayushkin, I. K. Karpov, V. G.
Kutcherov, I. N. Plotnikova, (2001), Energia, 22/3, 26-34.
PDF version
Introduction.
With recognition that the laws of
thermodynamics prohibit spontaneous evolution of liquid hydrocarbons in the
regime of temperature and pressure characteristic of the crust of the Earth,
one should not expect there to exist legitimate scientific evidence that
might suggest that such could occur. Indeed, and correctly, there exists no
such evidence.
Nonetheless, and surprisingly, there continue
to be often promulgated diverse claims purporting to constitute "evidence"
that natural petroleum somehow evolves (miraculously) from biological
matter. In this short article, such claims are briefly subjected to
scientific scrutiny, demonstrated to be without merit, and dismissed.
The claims which purport to argue for some
connection between natural petroleum and biological matter fall into roughly
two classes: the "look-like/come-from" claims; and the "similar(recondite)-properties/come-from"
claims.
The "look-like/come-from" claims apply a line
of unreason exactly as designated: Such argue that, because certain
molecules found in natural petroleum "look like" certain other molecules
found in biological systems, then the former must "come-from" the latter.
Such notion is, of course, equivalent to asserting that elephant tusks
evolve because those animals must eat piano keys.
In some instances, the "look-like/come-from"
claims assert that certain molecules found in natural petroleum actually
are biological molecules, and evolve only in biological systems. These
molecules have often been given the spurious name "biomarkers."
The scientific correction must be stated
unequivocally: There have never been observed any specifically
biological molecules in natural petroleum, except as contaminants. Petroleum
is an excellent solvent for carbon compounds; and, in the sedimentary strata
from which petroleum is often produced, natural petroleum takes into
solution much carbon material, including biological detritus. However, such
contaminants are unrelated to the petroleum solvent.
The claims about "biomarkers" have been
thoroughly discredited by observations of those molecules in the interiors
of ancient, abiotic meteorites, and also in many cases by laboratory
synthesis under imposed conditions mimicking the natural environment. In the
discussion below, the claims put forth about porphyrin and isoprenoid
molecules are addressed particularly, because many "look-like/come-from"
claims have been put forth for those compounds.
The "similar
(recondite)-properties/come-from" claims involve diverse, odd phenomena with
which persons not working directly in a scientific profession would be
unfamiliar. These include the "odd-even abundance imbalance" claims, the
"carbon isotope" claims, and the "optical-activity" claims. The first, the
"odd-even abundance imbalance" claims, are demonstrated to be utterly
unrelated to any biological property. The second, "carbon isotope" claims,
are shown to depend upon measurement of an obscure property of carbon fluids
which cannot reliably be considered a measure of origin. The third, the
"optical-activity" claims, deserve particular note; for the observations of
optical activity in natural petroleum have been trumpeted loudly for years
as a "proof" of some "biological origin" of petroleum. Those claims have
been thoroughly discredited decades ago by observation of optical activity
in the petroleum material extracted from the interiors of carbonaceous
meteorites. More significantly, recent analysis, which has resolved the
previously-outstanding problem of the genesis of optical activity in abiotic
fluids, has established that the phenomenon of optical activity is an
inevitable thermodynamic consequence of the phase stability of
multi-component fluids at high pressures. Thereby, the observation of
optical activity in natural petroleum is entirely consistent with the
results of the thermodynamic analysis of the stability of the
hydrogen-carbon [H-C] system, which establish that hydrocarbon molecules
heavier than methane, and particularly liquid hydrocarbons, evolve
spontaneously only at high pressures, comparable to those necessary for
diamond formation.
There are two subjects which are particularly
relevant for destroying the diverse, spurious claims concerning a putative
connection of petroleum and biological matter: the investigations of the
carbon material from carbonaceous meteorites; and the reaction products of
the Fischer-Tropsch process. Because of their importance, a brief discussion
of both is in order.
1
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2
History of Banking Fraud:
The Coming Battle
By M. W. WALBERT
The Coming Battle
documents from Congressional records, newspaper reports and writings by
the founding fathers and others a chronology of events long forgotten that
shaped our fledgling nation from 1776 to 1899. Read about the manipulation
of our money and its supply, the intentional creation of recessions,
depressions and panics, manipulation of the stock markets, and the
demonetization of silver.
Secrets of the Federal Reserve
by Eustace Mullins
Eustace Mullins' carefully
researched and documented treatise picks up from Walbert's expose' of
control of the money supply and the economy and
brings it to the mid 1980's.
The
World Order
How control of the world's money has inexorably led to an ever tighter
grip on control of the world's people.
Uranium Wars by Leuren Moret
How control of the world's people has inexorably led to wider use of
depopulation methods which include spreading radioactivity in food,
water, air, and the human genome.
Taking Back Your Power
by Allen Aslan Heart
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© 2007, Allen Aslan Heart / White Eagle Soaring of the Little Shell Pembina Band,
a
Treaty
Tribe of the Ojibwe Nation
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